Estrogen receptor alleles that are predictive of increased susceptibility to bone fracture

ABSTRACT

In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of determining susceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subject, wherein the methods comprise analyzing nucleic acid molecules obtained from the mammalian subject to determine which of the P, p X, and x alleles of the estrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein the presence of a haplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bone fracture. The present invention also provides kits for determining susceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subject.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.No. 13/866,279, filed Apr. 19, 2013, now abandoned, which is acontinuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/091,403, filedApr. 21, 2011, now abandoned, which is a continuation application ofU.S. application Ser. No. 12/062,338, filed Apr. 3, 2008, nowabandonded, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.No. 10/601,345, filed Jun. 19, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,354,712 whichclaims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/466,963, filedApr. 30, 2003, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/469,618, filedMay 9, 2003.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods for determining susceptibilityto bone fracture in a subject, methods of treating a subject to reducethe risk of bone fracture, methods of formulating a treatment regimen todecrease the risk of bone fracture, and kits for use in determiningsusceptibility to bone fracture.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mineral density (BMD),deterioration of the microarchitecture of bone and subsequent increasedfracture. Twin and family studies have suggested that BMD has a stronggenetic component, besides being influenced by nutritional andlife-style factors. Osteoporosis is regarded as a complex genetic trait,which means that variants of several genes underlie the variability ofthe phenotype. Among the candidate genes in relation to BMD are thegenes for collagen type IA1 (COLIA1), the Vitamin D receptor (VDR) andthe estrogen receptor α (ERα). ERα is also known as estrogen receptor I(ESR I). Polymorphisms in the genes for the VDR and the ERα have beenexamined in relation to BMD. Although contrary reports have beenpublished, two meta-analyses have shown a weak relation between the VDRgene and BMD. We and others have found a significant association betweenVDR polymorphisms and fracture risk while other studies could notconfirm such an association. Also contrary reports regarding thecontribution of polymorphisms in the ERα gene to BMD and fracture riskhave been published. A recent meta-analysis has shown a relation betweenthe ERα gene and BMD and fracture risk.

The vitamin D receptor gene (1202) comprises inherited polymorphismsbetween exon 7 and 3′ UTR of the VDR gene. These alleles are denotedB/b, A/a and T/t for restriction enzyme sites BsmI, ApaI and TaqIrespectively (or enzymatic or chemical procedures having similarspecificity), where a lower case letter denotes the presence of a wildtype restriction site which is capable of being cleaved, and a capitalletter denotes the presence of a mutant restriction enzyme site which isnot capable of being cleaved by the relevant restriction enzyme. For thepurposes of the present invention, determination of which alleles arepresent in a particular gene may be referred to as determining thegenotype of a subject for a particular gene. It is apparent from theabove that each copy of the vitamin D receptor gene comprises a specificcombination of the three alleles, this combination being referred to asthe haplotype of the gene. For example, the haplotype may be baT,indicating the presence of cleavable BsmI and ApaI sites, and anon-cleavable TaqI site. Direct haplotyping of the VDR gene has allowedfive different haplotypes to be determined, of which three are common.

Likewise the estrogen receptor α gene (also known as estrogen receptorI) has alleles denoted P/p and X/x for restrictions sites PvuII and XbaIrespectively (or enzymatic or chemical procedures having similarspecificity), where a lower case letter denotes the presence of a wildtype restriction site which is capable of being cleaved, and a capitalletter denotes the presence of a mutant restriction enzyme site which isnot capable of being cleaved by the relevant restriction enzyme. For thepurpose of the present invention, determination of which alleles arepresent in a particular gene may be referred to as determining thegenotype of a subject for a particular gene. It is apparent from theabove that each copy of the estrogen receptor α gene comprises aspecific combination of the alleles, this combination is referred to asthe haplotype of the gene. For example, the haplotype may be px,indication the presence of cleavable PvuI and XbaI sites. Directhaplotyping of the ERα gene has allowed three different haplotypes to bedetermined.

VDR and ERα are interesting genes because several interactions betweenthe vitamin D and estrogen endocrine system have been described.1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D₃(1,25-(OH)₂D₃) and 17β-estradiol (E₂) have amutual effect on their biosynthesis and receptor expression. Also somegenetic studies found an interaction between ERα and VDR genotypes withrespect to BMD. Suarez et al. found an interactive effect of ERα and VDRgene polymorphisms on growth in infants.

So far most genetic studies on osteoporosis have focused on BMD as theprimary endpoint and not on the clinically more relevant endpoint offractures. In contrast, the invention disclosed in the presentapplication utilizes the unexpected association between specific ERα andVDR genotypes and the most typical osteoporotic fracture, the vertebralfracture.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the present invention provides methods fordetermining susceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subjectcomprising at least one estrogen receptor α gene comprising a PvuII siteand a XbaI site, wherein the PvuII site can exist as a P or p allelicform, and the XbaI site can exist as an X or x allelic form, wherein themethod comprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules (e.g., genomic DNA)obtained from the mammalian subject to determine which of the P, p X,and x alleles of the estrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein thepresence of a haplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative ofan increased susceptibility to bone fracture.

In some embodiments the method comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine the presence of the pxhaplotype of the estrogen receptor α gene, wherein the presence of saidpx haplotype is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bonefracture. In some embodiments, the method further comprises analyzingnucleic acid molecules of a mammalian subject to determine whether anallele of the vitamin D receptor gene is present which allele isindicative of an increased susceptibility to bone fracture. In someembodiments, the method comprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules of amammalian subject to determine which of the B/b, A/a and T/t alleles ofthe BsmI, ApaI and TaqI sites of the vitamin D receptor gene arepresent, wherein the presence of a haplotype comprising at least of oneof the baT alleles is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bonefracture. The method may comprise determining whether more than one ofthe above alleles is present. The subject may be further classified asheterozygous or homozygous for one or more of these alleles. Preferably,the method comprises the additional step of determining whether theallele(s) present are associated with risk of bone damage, whereinpresence of the b, a or T alleles is associated with increased risk ofbone damage. Homozygosity for the a or b allele may further increase thesusceptibility to bone damage in a subject, while homozygosity for the tallele may further decrease susceptibility. Preferably, said methodcomprises determining whether the haplotype of the subject is associatedwith risk of bone damage, wherein the haplotype baT is associated withhigh risk of bone damage. A subject homozygous for said haplotype may beat higher risk of bone damage than those heterozygous for the haplotype.

In some embodiments, the method comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine the presence of the baThaplotype of the vitamin D receptor gene, wherein the presence of saidbaT haplotype is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bonefracture. In some embodiments the method further comprises determiningthe copy number of the P/p or X/x alleles of the estrogen receptor αgene and/or the B/b, A/a or T/t alleles of the vitamin D receptor gene.

In other embodiments, the method comprises comparing the allele(s)present in the mammalian subject with genotypes of the estrogen receptorα or vitamin D receptor genes having known degrees of risk of bonefracture.

In some embodiments the method is performed in vitro.

In some embodiments the method is performed on a blood or tissue sampleof a subject.

In a second aspect of the invention there is provided methods oftreating a mammalian subject to prevent or reduce the risk of bonefracture, wherein the mammalian subject comprises at least one estrogenreceptor α gene comprising a PvuII site and a XbaI site, wherein thePvuII site can exist as a P or p allelic form, and the XbaI site canexist as an X or x allelic form, the methods each comprising analyzingnucleic acid molecules obtained from the mammalian subject to determinewhich of the P, p, X and x alleles of the PvuII and XbaI sites of theestrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein the presence of ahaplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative of an increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture, and treating the mammalian subject toreduce the risk of bone fracture if the subject has a haplotypecomprising the p and x alleles.

In some embodiments the method further comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine the presence of the pxhaplotype of the estrogen receptor α gene, wherein the presence of thepx haplotype is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bonefracture.

In some embodiments the method further comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine which of the B/b, A/a andT/t alleles of the BsmI. ApaI and TaqI sites of the vitamin D receptorgene are present, wherein the presence of a haplotype comprising atleast one of the baT alleles is indicative of an increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture. In some embodiments the method furthercomprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules of a mammalian subject todetermine the presence of the baT haplotype of the vitamin D receptorgene, wherein the presence of the baT haplotype is indicative of anincreased susceptibility to bone fracture.

In some embodiments the method further comprises determining the copynumber of the P/p or X/x alleles of the estrogen receptor α gene and/orthe B/b A/a or T/t alleles of the vitamin D receptor gene.

In some embodiments the method comprises comparing the alleles presentin the mammalian subject with genotypes of the estrogen receptor α geneand/or vitamin D receptor gene having known degrees of risk of bonefracture.

In some embodiments of the method suitable treatments includemodifications to lifestyle, regular exercise, changes in diet orpharmaceutical preparations.

In some embodiments of the method the mammalian subject is a human.

In some embodiments of the method the mammalian subject is female.

In a third aspect of the invention there is provided methods offormulating a treatment regimen to decrease the risk of bone fracture ina mammalian subject, wherein the methods each comprise analyzing nucleicacid molecules of a mammalian subject to determine whether a pxhaplotype of an estrogen receptor α gene is present, wherein saidhaplotype is associated with risk of bone fracture, and formulating atreatment regimen to decrease the risk of bone fracture in the mammaliansubject.

In some embodiments the method further comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine the presence of the baThaplotype of the vitamin D receptor gene, wherein said haplotype isassociated with risk of bone fracture, and formulating a treatmentregimen to decrease the risk of bone fracture based on said haplotype.

In some embodiments the method further comprises comparing the allelespresent in the mammalian subject with genotypes of the estrogen receptorα gene and/or vitamin D receptor gene having known degrees of risk ofbone fracture.

In some embodiments the method comprises administering an appropriatetreatment, such as modifications to lifestyle, regular exercise, changesin diet or pharmaceutical preparations.

In a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided methods ofdetermining susceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subject,wherein the methods each comprise the step of utilizing a kit todetermine whether a px haplotype of an estrogen receptor α gene ispresent in a mammalian subject, wherein said kit comprises (i) one ormore nucleic acid primer molecules for amplification of a portion of theestrogen receptor a gene, (ii) means for determining whether the pxhaplotype of said gene is present, and (iii) means for indicating acorrelation between the presence of the px haplotype and risk of bonefracture, and wherein the presence of the px haplotype in the mammaliansubject is indicative of susceptibility to bone fracture.

The association between the presence of the px haplotype andsusceptibility to bone fracture is independent of BMD. In someembodiments the method further comprises the step of determining whetherthe baT haplotype of the vitamin D receptor gene is present in themammalian subject, said kit further comprising (i) one or more nucleicacid primer molecules for amplification of a portion of the vitamin Dreceptor gene, (ii) means for determining whether the baT haplotype ofthe vitamin D receptor gene is present and (iii) means for indicating acorrelation between the presence of the baT haplotype and risk of bonefracture.

In a fifth aspect of the invention there is provided a kit fordetermining susceptibility to bone fracture in a subject, said kitcomprising (i) one or more nucleic acid primer molecules foramplification of a portion of an estrogen receptor α gene, (ii) meansfor determining whether a px haplotype of said gene is present; and(iii) means for indicating a correlation between the presence of saidhaplotype and risk of bone fracture.

In some embodiments the kit further comprises (i) one or more nucleicacid primer molecules for amplification of a portion of a vitamin Dreceptor gene, (ii) means for determining whether a baT haplotype of thevitamin D receptor gene is present, and (iii) means for indicating acorrelation between the presence of the baT haplotype and risk of bonefracture.

In some embodiments of the first to fifth aspects the haplotype of theestrogen receptor α gene is determined by amplification of a portion ofthe first intron of the estrogen receptor α gene, followed byrestriction enzyme digestion; or any other technique suitable fordetermining the genotype of the subject.

In some embodiments of the first to fifth aspects the haplotype of thevitamin D receptor is determined by amplification of a portion of thevitamin D receptor gene between exon 7 and the 3′ untranslated region(UTR), followed by restriction enzyme digestion; or any other techniquesuitable for determining the genotype of the subject.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of thisinvention will become more readily appreciated as the same become betterunderstood by reference to the following detailed description, whentaken in conjunction with the accompanying tables and drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows VDR gene: direct molecular haplotyping. For details seeExample 1.

FIG. 2 shows ER gene: direct molecular haplotyping. For details seeExample 1.

FIG. 3 shows odds ratios and numbers of vertebral fractures according toERα haplotype 1 (px) and VDR haplotype 1 (baT) genotype. ‘Reference’includes ERα and VDR genotypes 22, 23, and 33; ‘hetero’ includes 12 and13 genotypes; ‘homo’ includes 11 genotype. **p-value<0.001 for alleledose association of ERα haplotype 1. *p-value=0.06 for allele doseassociation of VDR haplotype 1.

FIG. 4 shows odds ratios compared to the ‘double reference’ group andnumbers of vertebral fractures according to combined ERα and VDRgenotypes. ‘Reference’ includes ERα and VDR genotypes 22, 23, and 33;‘heterozygotes’ include 12 and 13; ‘homozygote’ includes 11.*p-value<0.001 for allele dose association of ERαhaplotype 1 (px) in VDRhaplotype 1 (baT) homozygous carriers. p=0.01 for the interaction term.

FIG. 5 shows the nucleic acid sequence of part of intron I/exon 2 of thehuman Estrogen receptor α gene containing PvuII and xbaI polymorphisms.Nucleic acid sequences to which PCR primers anneal are underlined. Thenucleic acid sequence of this portion of the estrogen receptor α gene isalso shown in SEQ ID NO:1.

FIGS. 6A-6D show the nucleic acid sequence of the 3′ part of the humanVDR gene containing BsmI (FIG. 6B), ApaI (FIG. 6C), and TaqI (FIG. 6C)RFLP's polymorphic sites, with the VDR1 forward primer (FIG. 6A) and the3′ untranslated region (3′-UTR) (FIG. 6D) and the reverse primer (FIG.6D) provided. The nucleic acid sequences to which PCR primers anneal areunderlined. The nucleic acid sequence of this portion of the human VDRgene is also shown in SEQ ID NO:2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

Unless specifically defined herein, all terms used herein have the samemeaning as they would to one skilled in the art of the presentinvention. Practitioners are particularly directed to Sambrook et al.(1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2^(ed)., Cold SpringHarbor Press, Plainsview, N.Y. (1989), and Ausubel et al., CurrentProtocols in Molecular Biology (Supplement 47), John Wiley & Sons, NewYork (1999), for definitions and terms of the art.

As used herein, the following terms have the meanings defined below:Estrogen receptor α (abbreviated as ERα) is a nuclear hormone receptorprotein that binds estrogen and is thereby activated and binds tospecific sequences of nuclear DNA which serve as on-off switches fortranscription within the cell nucleus. Representative ERα genes that areanalyzed in the practice of the present invention hybridize underconditions of 1.0×SSC, 0.5% SDS, at 30° C. for 30 minutes to the portionof the representative ERα gene set forth in SEQ ID NO:1. Some ERα genesthat are analyzed in the practice of the present invention hybridizeunder conditions of 1.0×SSC, 0.5% SDS, at 45° C. for 30 minutes to theportion of the representative ERα gene set forth in SEQ ID NO:1. SomeERα genes that are analyzed in the practice of the present inventionhybridize under conditions of 1.0×SSC, 0.5% SDS, at 60° C. for 30minutes to the portion of the representative ERα gene set forth in SEQID NO:1. The ability to hybridize under the foregoing conditions can bedetermined, for example, by first hybridizing the nucleic acid moleculesunder low stringency conditions (e.g., 6×SSC, 0.5% SDS, at 25° C. for 12hours), then incubating the hybridized nucleic acid molecules under thestated conditions (e.g., 1.0×SSC, 0.5% SDS, at 30° C. for 30 minutes).

There is a polymorphism at position 397 of the nucleotide sequence(numbered from the transcriptional start site) of the ERα gene. Thepolymorphism consists of a substitution of a C residue at position 397of the sequence with a T residue. The genetic polymorphism is denoted“C397T” where the number refers to the position of the polymorphism withrespect to the nucleotide sequence; the “C” is the nucleotide residuepresent in the reference or wild type sequence; and the “T” is thenucleotide residue present at that position in the variant sequence.There is a polymorphism at position 351 of the nucleotide sequence ofthe ERα gene. The polymorphism consists of a substitution of a G residueat position 351 for the sequence provided in SEQ ID NO:1 with a Aresidue. The genetic polymorphism is denoted “G351A” where the numberrefers to the position of the polymorphism with respect to thenucleotide sequence; the “G” is the nucleotide residue present in thereference or wild type sequence; and the “A” is the nucleotide residuepresent at that position in the variant sequence.

As used herein, the term “VDR gene” refers to a gene coding for theVitamin D receptor.

As used herein, the term “bone damage” refers to any form of structuraldamage including fractures, break or chips. The term may also includebiological degradation or deterioration of bone. Typically, the term“bone damage” does not include low bone mineral density. This is in linewith the finding that risk of bone damage is independent of bone mineraldensity. Fracture may be defined as the clinically most importantendpoint, and thus the method of the first aspect of the inventionpreferably relates to a method for determining risk of fractureindependent of bone mineral density. Although such bone damage willusually be the result of osteoporosis, it is irrelevant for the purposesof the present invention whether a subject has first been diagnosed ashaving osteoporosis or low bone mineral density.

As used herein, the terms “risk of bone damage” and “susceptibility tobone damage” are used interchangeably and such risk or susceptibly isindependent of bone mineral density. The present invention enables theidentification of those individuals susceptible to bone fracture, andthe development of therapeutic or preventative measures. For example,those at risk may avoid damage by modifying their lifestyle andimplementing bone strengthening measures, such as regular exercise and ahealthy diet, or by taking medicaments which reduce the risk of damage.Exemplary, art-recognized strategies for the prevention and/or treatmentof individuals who are at increased risk of bone fracture are describedin: DeSantis, A. and A. Buchman, “Current and Emerging Therapies inOsteoporosis,” Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 3(7):835-843, 2002; Whitfield,J. A., et al., “Bone Growth Stimulators. New Tools for Treating BoneLoss and Mending Fractures,” Vitain. Horm. 65:1-80, 2002; Lane, J. M.,et al., “Medical Management of Osteoporosis,” Institute for BiologicalSciences, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Canada,Instr. Course Lect. 52:785-789, 2003; Kim, I., “Osteoporosis inAging-Challenges and Opportunities,” J. Okla. State Med. Assoc.96(3):143-146, 2003; Body, J. J “Management of Primary Osteoporosis,”Acta Clin. Belg. 57(5):277-283, 2002.

In one aspect, the present invention provides methods for determiningsusceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subject comprising atleast one estrogen receptor α gene comprising a PvuII site and a XbaIsite, wherein the PvuII site can exist as a P or p allelic form, and theXbaI site can exist as an X or x allelic form, wherein the methodcomprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules (e.g., genomic DNA) obtainedfrom the mammalian subject to determine which of the P, p X, and xalleles of the estrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein thepresence of a haplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative ofan increased susceptibility to bone fracture.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of a mammalian subject to determine whether an allele of thevitamin D receptor gene is present which allele is indicative of anincreased susceptibility to bone fracture. In some embodiments, themethod comprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules of a mammalian subjectto determine which of the B/b, A/a and T/t alleles of the BsmI, ApaI andTaqI sites of the vitamin D receptor gene are present, wherein thepresence of a haplotype comprising at least of one of the baT alleles isindicative of an increased susceptibility to bone fracture.

The determination that an allele of a polymorphism in an estrogenreceptor α gene and/or a Vitamin D receptor gene is associated with anincreased or decreased susceptibility to bone damage may be performedusing standard statistical analyses in a population of subjects, asdescribed, for example in the “statistical analysis” section. Anexemplary method for determining the presence of one or more allelesassociated with an increased or a decreased susceptibility to bonedamage is present in a subject is described in detail below. Anexemplary haplotype is the ERα haplotype 1 (px) of the estrogen receptora and the VDR haplotype 1 (baT) of the VDR receptor. The estrogenreceptor α gene comprises an inherited polymorphism at positions 397 and351 of a nucleotide sequence of the ERα. The sequence of the estrogenreceptor α gene and methodology on how to identify the C397T and G351Apolymorphisms have been previously described.

The present invention is based upon the surprising observation of acorrelation between the presence of the T allele at position 397 and/orthe A allele at position 351 of the estrogen receptor α gene and thesusceptibility to/or risk of bone fracture in those subjects having thepolymorphisms independent of BMD. A subject having the estrogen receptora T allele and the A allele in addition to the VDR haplotype 1 (baT)shows a higher risk of fracture compared to a subject having theestrogen receptor a C and G alleles and a haplotype of 2 (BAt) or 3(bAT) for the VDR polymorphism.

These results could not be predicted as previous studies have shown thatthe fracture risk is dependent on bone mineral density. This fact isborne out by the results presented herein, where those individualshaving the highest risk of bone fracture are those not having low bonemineral density. By screening for the alleles of the estrogen receptor αgene, and/or the VDR gene susceptibility to bone damage may be assessedwithout the need for an analysis of bone mineral density.

In some embodiments there are provided methods for determiningsusceptibility to bone damage in a subject comprising determining thepresence of T allele of the C397T polymorphism of the estrogen receptorα gene and/or the A allele of the G351A polymorphism of the estrogenreceptor α gene. This fact is confirmed by the result presented herein,that those individuals at highest risk of bone damage have bothpolymorphisms. Thus, some embodiments provide methods for determiningsusceptibility to bone damage in a subject, comprising determining thepresence of the T allele of the C397T polymorphism of the estrogenreceptor α gene and the A allele of the G351A polymorphism of theestrogen receptor α gene, wherein the presence of at least one copy ofthe T allele of the C397T polymorphism and at least one copy of the Aallele of the G351A polymorphism of the estrogen receptor α gene in thesubject is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bone fractureindependent of bone mineral density.

Typically, the method of the first aspect of the present inventioncomprises analysis of polymorphisms in estrogen receptor α gene todetermine susceptibility to bone damage. The method may include analysisof DNA, and/or RNA, to determine which allele of a polymorphism ispresent. The method may include determining whether one or moreparticular alleles are present. The method may further comprisedetermining whether subjects are homozygous or heterozygous for allelesof the estrogen receptor a gene.

Preferably, the method of the first aspect of the present inventionfurther comprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules of a mammaliansubject to determine whether an allele of the Vitamin D receptor ispresent which allele is indicative of an increased susceptibility tobone fracture. This may be performed by comparing the alleles present ina subject with those known to be associated with risk of bone damage.For example, a visual aid detailing alleles and the relative risk ofbone damage associated therewith may be used to determine whether thegenotype or phenotype of the subject is associated with a high or lowrisk of bone damage.

The methods of the present invention may be performed in vitro.Preferably, the method is performed on a tissue or fluid sample removedfrom the body of the subject. Thus, the present invention relates to anon-invasive diagnostic method, the results of which provide anindication of susceptibility to bone fracture but do not lead to adiagnosis upon which an immediate medical decision regarding treatmentcan be made.

The present invention may be performed on any living subject for whichit is desirable to determine risk of bone fracture. Most preferably, thesubject is a human, preferably a female.

The present invention may be performed using any suitable method knownin the art. Preferably, a tissue or fluid sample is first removed from asubject. Examples of suitable samples include blood, mouth or cheekcells, and hair samples containing roots. Other suitable samples wouldbe known to the person skilled in the art. The nucleic acid moleculesare extracted from the sample, using any suitable method. For examplethe nucleic acid molecules may be extracted using the techniquesdescribed in Sambrook et al (Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual, ColdSpring Harbor Laboratory Press). Determination of the genotype orphenotype of a subject may then be carried out using the extractednucleic acid molecules, employing any suitable technique, including, forexample, Southern blot analysis followed by restriction enzymedigestion; PCR amplification followed by restriction enzyme digestionand, optionally, separation of digestion products by gelelectrophoresis; sequencing of a relevant gene fragment by any suitablemethod; visualization of heteroduplex patterns, for example on PAA oragarose gels, where different patterns may indicate the presence of oneor more specific alleles; separation of DNA fragments using denaturinggradient gels, wherein the degree of separation will depend upon thepresence or absence of one or more polymorphic restriction sites;separation using SSCP analysis, the patterns of which will depend uponthe presence or absence of one or more polymorphic restriction sites,use of allele specific oligonucleotides, hybridization patterns of whichsome will be specific for various combinations of alleles; methods suchas OLA, Taqman or dot-bloting for the detection of known mutations;visualization of DNA sites using fluorescent labeled probes for allelesof interest; and RFLP analysis. Other suitable methods will be known topersons skilled in the art.

Where it is desirable to use particular restriction enzymes inperforming the present invention, the skilled person will understandthat enzymatic or chemical procedures having similar specificities mayalso be used. For example, restriction enzymes having similarspecificity (isoschizomers) to those described herein may be used, orchemical degradation procedures with DNA or RNA cutting specificity.

Other techniques suitable for determining the genotype or phenotype of asubject may be used in the present invention.

Amplification is preferably carried out by polymerase chain reaction(PCR) techniques, to produce copies of the amplified region, where thefragment is of the estrogen receptor α gene, the fragments are at leastabout 20, preferably at least about 50, about 70, about 100, about 150,or about 200 bases in length. Where the fragment to be amplified is ofthe VDR gene, PCR primers may be selected to amplify a fragment which isat least about 20, preferably at least about 50, about 70, about 100,about 150, or about 200 bases in length.

Exemplary PCR primers are at least about 10 nucleotides in length,preferably at least about 15 nucleotides or at least 20 nucleotides inlength, and are complementary to any stretch of at least about 10nucleotides of the sequence to be amplified. PCR techniques are wellknow in the art, and it is within the ambit of the skilled person toidentify primers for amplification of the appropriate region of theabove genes, namely the first intron of the estrogen receptor α gene andthe region from exon 7 to the 3′ UTR of the VDR gene. A preferredtechnique is single base extension, and for this method it is onlynecessary to amplify a fragment including the polymorphic site. Thus,amplification of the region immediately surrounding the C397T and G351Apolymorphic site is necessary. Exemplary PCR techniques are described inEP-A-0200362 and EP-A-0201184.

In a preferred feature of the first aspect, there is provided a methodfor determining susceptibility to bone fracture in a subject, saidmethod comprising amplifying a fragment comprising a portion of thefirst intron of the estrogen receptor a gene, and determining whichallele(s) in the estrogen receptor α gene is/are present. Primerssuitable for amplification of said portion of the estrogen receptor αgene would be readily available to a person skilled in the art. Examplesfor such primers include:

SEQ ID NO: 3:  5′-GATATCCAGGGTTATGTGGCA-3′ SEQ ID NO: 4: 5′-AGGTGTTGCCTATTATATTAACCTTGA-3′

To determine which allele of the VDR gene is present, at least a portionof the region from exon 7 to 3′ UTR of the VDR may be amplified followedby the determination of the presence of the BsmI, ApaI and TaqI sites.Suitable primers include:

SEQ ID NO: 5  5′-CAACCAAGACTACAAGTACCGCGTCAGTGA-3′ and/or SEQ ID NO: 6 5′-TTTGGCTCCAATCAGATACATGGGA-3′ SEQ ID NO: 7 5′-GCAACTCCTCATGGCTGAGGTCTC-3′

In a second aspect of the invention there is provided methods oftreating a mammalian subject to prevent or reduce the risk of bonefracture, wherein the mammalian subject comprises at least one estrogenreceptor α gene comprising a PvuII site and a XbaI site, wherein thePvuII site can exist as a P or p allelic form, and the XbaI site canexist as an X or x allelic form, the methods each comprising analyzingnucleic acid molecules obtained from the mammalian subject to determinewhich of the P, p, X and x alleles of the PvuII and XbaI sites of theestrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein the presence of ahaplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative of an increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture, and treating the mammalian subject toreduce the risk of bone fracture if the subject has a haplotypecomprising the p and x alleles.

In some embodiments the method further comprises analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of the mammalian subject to determine which of the B/b, A/aand T/t alleles of the BsmI, ApaI and TaqI sites of the vitamin Dreceptor gene are present, wherein the presence of a haplotypecomprising at least one of the baT alleles is indicative of an increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture. In some embodiments the method furthercomprises analyzing nucleic acid molecules of the mammalian subject todetermine the presence of the baT haplotype of the vitamin D receptorgene, wherein the presence of the baT haplotype is indicative of anincreased susceptibility to bone fracture.

In some embodiments the subject is diagnosed as being at risk of bonefracture, preferably using the method of the first aspect of theinvention. In this aspect the reduction in risk of bone fractureincludes any means of reducing risk of bone fracture in a subject.

Therapy may be in the form of preventative or palliative care. Apreferred method of treatment is prescribing or administering an agentthat reduces the susceptibility of a subject to bone fracture. Forexample, the treatment may comprise prescribing or administeringFosamax® (sodium alendronate) or Fosteo® (parathyroid hormone) oranabolic steroids, bisphosphonates, vitamin D preparations or othertreatments known to those skilled in the art. Other suitable treatmentwhich may be prescribed or administered alongside Fosamax or Fosteo, oras an alternative thereto, treatment also includes modifications tolifestyle, regular exercise and changes in diet to strengthen bones, andhormone therapy. Other suitable treatments including pharmaceuticalpreparations to reduce bone loss as known to physicians and personsskilled in the art. Examples include anabolic steroids, bisphosphonates,vitamin D preparations, calcium supplements and Hormone ReplacementTherapy.

Administration of the medicament is accomplished by any effective route,e.g., orally or parenteral. Methods for parenteral delivery includetopical, intra-arterial, subcutaneous, intramedullary, intravenous, orintranasal administration. Oral administration followed by subcutaneousinjection would be the preferred routes of uptake, also long actingimmobilizations would be used. In addition to the active ingredients,these medicaments may contain suitable pharmaceutically acceptablecarriers comprising excipients and other compounds that facilitateprocessing of the active compounds into preparations which can be usedpharmaceutically. Further details of techniques for formulation andadministration may be found in the latest edition of “Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences” (Mack Publishing Co, Easton Pa.).

Medicaments for oral administration can be formulated usingpharmaceutically acceptable carriers well known in the art, in dosagessuitable for oral administration. Such carriers enable thepharmaceutical compositions to be formulated as tablets, pills, dragees,capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, etc., suitablefor ingestion by the patient.

Medicaments for oral use can be obtained through combination of activecompounds with solid excipient, optionally grinding a resulting mixture,and processing the mixture of granules, after adding suitable additioncompounds, if desired, to obtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitableexcipients are carbohydrate or protein fillers. These include, but arenot limited to sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, orsorbitol, starch from corn, wheat, rice, potato, or other plants;cellulose such as methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, orsodium carboxymethylcellulose; and gums including arabic and tragacanth;as well as proteins, such as gelatin or collagen. If desired,disintegrating or solubilizing agents may be added, such as thecross-linked polyvinyl pyrrolidone, agar, alginic acid, or a saltthereof, such as sodium alginate.

Dragee cores are provided with suitable coating such as concentratedsugar solutions, which may also contain gum arabic, talc,polyvinylpyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene, glycol, and/ortitanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents orsolvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments may be added to the tablets ordragee coatings for product identification or to characterize thequantity of active compound (i.e., dosage).

Medicaments, which can be used orally, include push-fit capsules made ofgelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a coatingsuch as glycerol or sorbitol. Push-fit capsules can contain activeingredients mixed with filler or binders such as lactose or starches,lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate, and, optionally,stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds may be dissolved orsuspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, orliquid polyethylene glycol with or without stabilizers.

Medicaments for parenteral administration include aqueous solutions ofactive compounds. For injection, the medicaments of the invention may beformulated in aqueous solutions, preferably in physiologicallycompatible buffers such as Hank's solution, Ringer's solution, orphysiologically buffered saline. Aqueous injection suspensions maycontain substances, which increase the viscosity of the suspension, suchas sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, or dextran. Additionally,suspensions of the active compounds may be prepared as appropriate oilyinjection suspensions. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles includefatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, such asethyl oleate or triglycerides, or lipsomes. Optionally, the suspensionmay also contain suitable stabilizers or agents, which increase thesolubility of the compounds to allow for the preparation of highlyconcentrated solutions.

For topical or nasal administration, penetrants appropriate to theparticular barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Suchpenetrants are generally known in the art.

Medicaments useful for treating mammalian subjects susceptible to bonefracture may be manufactured in a manner similar to that know in the art(e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulation,dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulation, entrapping orlyophilizing processes). The medicaments may also be modified to provideappropriate releases characteristics, e.g., sustained release ortargeted release, by conventional means e.g., coating.

The medicaments may be provided as a salt and can be formed with manyacids, including but not limited to hydrochloric, sulfuric, acetic,lactic, tartaric, malic, succinic, etc. Salts tend to be more soluble inaqueous or other protonic solvents that are the corresponding free baseforms. In other cases, the preferred preparation may be a lyophilizedpowder in 1 mM-50 mM histidine, 0.1%-2% sucrose, 2%-7% mannitol at a pHrange of 4.5 to 5.5, that is combined with buffer prior to use.

After such medicaments formulated in an acceptable carrier have beenprepared, they can be placed in an appropriate container and labeled fortreatment of an indicated condition.

Medicaments suitable for prevention or reduction of bone damage includecompositions wherein the active ingredients are contained in aneffective amount to achieve the intended purpose. The amount actuallyadministered will be dependent upon the individual to which treatment isto be applied, and will preferably be an optimized amount such that thedesired effect is achieved without significant side-effects. Thedetermination of a therapeutically effective dose is well within thecapability of those skilled in the art. Of course, the skilled personwill realize that divided and partial doses are also within the scope ofthe invention.

For any compound, the therapeutically effective dose can be estimatedinitially either in cell culture assays or in any appropriate animalmodel (e.g., primate, rats and guinea pigs for hypertension and othersmall laboratory animals). These assays should take into accountreceptor activity as well as downstream processing activity. The animalmodel is also used to achieve a desirable concentration range and routeof administration. Such information can then be used to determine usefuldoses and routes for administration in humans.

A therapeutically effective amount refers to that amount of agent, whichameliorates the symptoms or condition. Therapeutic efficacy and toxicityof such compounds can be determined by standard pharmaceuticalprocedures, in cell cultures or experimental animals (e.g., ED₅₀, thedose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population; and LD₅₀, thedose lethal to 50% of the population). The dose ratio betweentherapeutic and toxic effects is the therapeutic index, and it can beexpressed as the ratio ED₅₀/LD₅₀. Medicaments, which exhibit largetherapeutic indices, are preferred. The data obtained from cell cultureassays and animal studies is used in formulating a range of dosage forhuman use. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a rangeof circulation concentrations that include the ED₅₀ with little or notoxicity. The dosage varies within this range depending upon the dosageform employed, sensitivity of the patient, and the route ofadministration.

The exact dosage is chosen by the individual physician in view of thepatient to be treated. Dosage and administration are adjusted to providesufficient levels of the active moiety or to maintain the desiredeffect. Long acting medicaments might be administered every 3 to 4 days,every week, or once every two weeks depending on half-life and clearancerate of the particular formulation. Guidance as to particular dosagesand methods for delivery is provided in the literature (see U.S. Pat.Nos. 4,657,760; 5,206,344 and 5,225,212, herein incorporated byreference).

In a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a methodof formulating a treatment regimen to decrease the risk of bonefracture. In some embodiments the method comprises analyzing nucleicacid molecules of a mammalian subject to determine the presence of thepx haplotype of the ERα (haplotype 1) and the baT haplotype of the VDRgene (haplotype 1). This may be done according to the methods providedin the first aspect of the invention.

In a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a methodof formulating a treatment regimen to decrease the risk of bonefracture. In some embodiments the method comprises analyzing nucleicacid molecules and/or proteins of a mammalian subject to determine thepresence of the px haplotype of the estrogen receptor a gene, whereinsaid haplotype is associated with risk of bone fracture, and formulatinga treatment regimen to decrease the risk of bone fracture. The nucleicacid molecules can be analyzed using, for example, the techniquesdescribed in connection with the methods provided in the first aspect ofthe invention.

The effect of a therapeutic or preventative agent may depend on theunderlying cause of the bone damage, in some cases it may be preferableto avoid the use of certain treatments for example, the presence orabsence of particular alleles of a gene will provide a useful indicationas to which is the most appropriate preventative measure. This aspect ofthe present invention may also be useful for identifying agents whichmay be used in the treatment of bone damage.

Thus, in some embodiments, the present invention provides methods forpredicting the response of a mammalian subject to treatment to decreasethe risk of bone damage that comprises the steps of: (1) determiningwhich allele(s) of polymorphisms in an ERα gene, or the combination ofan ERα gene and a VDR gene a mammalian subject has; and (2) predictingthe response of the subject to treatment, wherein the absence of anallele of a polymorphism in an ERα gene or a VDR gene that is associatedwith an increased risk of bone damage is indicative that treatment ofthe mammalian subject is unlikely to reduce the risk of bone damage. Thepolymorphisms in the ERα gene that is associated with an increased riskof bone damage may be the C397T and or G351A polymorphisms. Thepolymorphisms in the VDR gene that are associated with an increased riskof bone damage may be the baT polymorphisms.

In some embodiments, the method comprises the steps of: (1) determiningthat a mammalian subject has an increased susceptibility to hone damageby using a method comprising the step of determining the presence in thesubject of one or more allele(s) of polymorphisms in an ERα gene and aVDR gene that are associated with increased susceptibility to bonedamage; and (2) predicting the response of the subject to treatmentwherein the absence of an allele of a polymorphism in ERα that isassociated with an increased risk of bone damage is indicative thattreatment of the subject is unlikely to reduce the risk of bone damage.The polymorphism in the ERα gene that is associated with an increasedrisk of bone damage may be the C397T and/or the G351A polymorphisms. Thepolymorphism in the VDR gene that is associated with an increased riskof bone damage may be the baT polymorphism.

In a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided methods ofdetermining susceptibility to bone fracture in a mammalian subject,wherein each method comprises the step of utilizing a kit to determinewhether a px haplotype of an estrogen receptor a gene is present in amammalian subject, wherein said kit comprises (i) one or more nucleicacid primer molecules for amplification of a portion of the estrogenreceptor a gene, (ii) means for determining whether the px haplotype ofsaid gene is present, and (iii) means for indicating a correlationbetween the presence of the px haplotype and risk of bone fracture, andwherein the presence of the px haplotype in the mammalian subject isindicative of susceptibility to bone fracture.

Some embodiments of the methods further comprise the step of determiningwhether a baT haplotype of a vitamin D receptor gene is present in themammalian subject, said kit further comprising (i) one or more nucleicacid primer molecules for amplification of a portion of the vitamin Dreceptor gene, (ii) means for determining whether the baT haplotype ofthe vitamin D receptor gene is present, and (iii) means for indicating acorrelation between the presence of the baT haplotype and risk of bonefracture.

Details of compounds of the Kit include those described below inrelation to the fifth aspect.

The Method of the fourth aspect may be performed using any suitablemethods known in the art, for example those as discussed above inrelation to the method of the first aspect of the invention.

In a fifth aspect of the present invention, there is provided kits foruse in determining which allele(s) of a polymorphism of an ERα gene orthe combination of an ERα gene and a VDR gene are present in a mammaliansubject. The kits include (i) one or more nucleic acid primer moleculesfor amplification of a portion of an estrogen receptor α gene, (ii)means for determining whether a px haplotype of said gene is present;and (iii) means for indicating a correlation between the presence ofsaid haplotype and risk of bone fracture. In some embodiments the kitsinclude (i) one or more nucleic acid primer molecules for amplificationof a portion of a vitamin D receptor gene, (ii) means for determiningwhether a baT haplotype of the vitamin D receptor gene is present, and(iii) means for indicating a correlation between the presence of the baThaplotype and risk of bone fracture.

In some embodiments, the kit provides a method for determiningsusceptibility to bone damage by determining the presence of alleles ofERα or alleles of ERα and VDR that are associated with an increased ordecreased susceptibility to bone damage. In further embodiments, the kitmay be used in a method of predicting the response of a subject totreatment by determining the presence of alleles of ERα or alleles ofERα and VDR that are associated with an increased or decreasedsusceptibility to bone damage.

Preferably, the kit also comprises means for indicating a correlationbetween the allele(s) and risk of bone damage, or for predicting theresponse of a mammalian subject to treatment. Thus, the kit may containwritten indicia providing information to the user for interpreting theresults of the analysis. For example the written indicia may explainthat the presence of the PvuII and XbaI restriction sites at the p and xpolymorphisms of the ERα gene in a subject indicates the presence of theT and A alleles at these polymorphic sites.

Preferably, the primer molecules are suitable for amplification of atleast a portion of the ERα gene or the ERα and VDR genes. Primerssuitable for amplification of a portion of the ERα gene would be readilyavailable to a person skilled in the art. Examples of suitable primersare described above. For example, suitable primers may amplify afragment comprising a portion of the ERα gene, and determine whichallele(s) of the C397T and G351A (px) polymorphisms in ERα is/arepresent. Examples of such primers include:

SEQ ID NO: 3:  5′-GATATCCAGGGTTATGTGGCA-3′ SEQ ID NO: 4: 5′-AGGTGTTGCCTATTATATTAACCTTGA-3′

Primers suitable for amplification of a portion of the VDR gene wouldalso be readily available to a person skilled in the art. For example,suitable primers may amplify a portion of the VDR gene to determinewhich allele(s) of the baT polymorphisms of the VDR gene is present.Suitable primers include:

SEQ ID NO: 5  5′-CAACCAAGACTACAAGTACCGCGTCAGTGA-3′ and/or SEQ ID NO: 6 5′-TTTGGCTCCAATCAGATACATGGGA-3′ SEQ ID NO: 7 5′-GCAACTCCTCATGGCTGAGGTCTC-3′

Means for determining which allele(s) is/are present in the ERα gene,and/or VDR gene may include any reagents or molecules necessary for usein any of the methods described above. For example, where PCR followedby DNA digestion is used, said means preferably include PCR reagents andone or more of the PvuII and/or XbaI restriction enzymes. Where themethod employs Southern Blotting, heteroduplex visualization, orfluorescent labeling techniques for example, probes which bind to theappropriate region of the ERα gene, and/or VDR gene may be included.Where necessary, such probes may be labeled to allow detection, forexample by nick-translation, radio- or fluorescent-labeling, or randomprimer extension whereby the non-labeled nucleotides serve as a templatefor the synthesis of labeled molecules. Other methods for labelingprobes are well known in the art.

The means for correlating the allele present with risk of bone damage,or for predicting response to treatment, may be in the form of a chartor visual aid. The chart or visual aid may indicate that presence of thep and x alleles of the ERα gene and the baT alleles of the VDR gene isassociated with increased risk of bone damage. In a preferred feature ofthe fifth aspect, the kit may also comprise control DNA samples, forcomparison with DNA sequences of a subject. The control samples maycomprise the sequence of one or more alleles of the ERα and/or VDRgenes.

The following examples are provided for the purpose of illustration, notlimiting, the present invention.

Example 1

This Example describes the identification of polymorphisms in the ERαgene and the VDR gene that are positively correlated with increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture in human beings.

Study Subjects

All women included in this study were part of a population-based cohortstudy of subjects aged 55 years or more, living in the Ommoord districtof the city of Rotterdam in The Netherlands. The objective of the studywas to document the occurrence of disease in the elderly in relation toseveral potential determinants (1). A total of 10,275 persons wereinvited for baseline examination in 1990. Of those 7,983 (61.1% women)participated, bringing the overall response rate to 78%. The baselineassessments included the measurement of anthropometric characteristics,femoral and lumbar spine BMD. Subjects were excluded according to thefollowing criteria: age 80 years and over, use of a walking aid, use ofestrogen or hormone replacement therapy, diuretic, thyroid hormone orcytostatics, or known diabetes mellitus. After genotyping women with therare VDR haplotypes 4 and 5 (n=16) were excluded. Anthropometric data,DNA samples and genotype data for both loci were finally available in asample of 1062 women. Data on incident vertebral fractures wereavailable for a subgroup of 634 women. The follow-up time was on average6.5 (SD 0.4) years.

Measurements

At baseline height and weight were measured. BMD (in g/cm²) was measuredat the femoral neck and lumbar spine by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry(Lunar DPX-L densitometer), as reported earlier (2). Body mass index(BMI) was computed as weight in kilograms divided by height in squaremeters (kg/m²). Age at menopause was assessed by questionnaire. Dietaryintakes for calcium (mg/day) and vitamin D (mg/day) were assessed byfood frequency questionnaire and adjusted for energy intake. Both atbaseline, between 1990 and 1993 and at the follow-up visit, between1997-1999, radiographs of the spine from the fourth thoracic to thefifth lumbar vertebrae were taken. All follow-up photos were analyzedfor the presence of vertebral fractures by the McCloskey/Kanis method(3). The occurrence of non-vertebral fractures was recorded, confirmedand classified by a physician. In our study population 85 incidentvertebral fractures were captured. 131 subjects had a non-vertebralfracture of which 6 had a prevalent vertebral fracture.

Determination of VDR and ERα Genotypes

For genotyping we determined haplotypes of the BsmI, ApaI, and TaqIrestriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) at the 3′ end of theVDR gene and haplotypes of the PvuII- and XbaI RFLPs in the first intronof the ERα gene by direct molecular haplotyping methods as describedpreviously (4). Three frequent VDR haplotypes were discerned, encoded 1(baT), 2 (BAt), and 3 (bAT) (FIG. 1). The less frequent haplotypes 4 and5 were excluded from the analysis (n=16). Women carrying these genotypesrepresent 1.5% of the population. For direct molecular haplotyping ofthe PvuII and XbaI RFLPs a 346 bp PCR fragment was generated by aforward primer (SEQ ID NO:3: 5′-GATATCCAGGGT TATGTGGCA-3′) and a reverseprimer (SEQ ID NO:4: 5′-AGGTGTTGCCTATTATATTAACCTTGA-3′) in a reactionmixture of 10 μL containing 20 ng of genomic DNA, 50 mM KCl, 10 mMTris-HCl (pH 8.3), 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM deoxy-NTP, 2 pM of each primer,and 0.2 U Super Taq polymerase (HT Biotechnology Ltd., Cambridge, UK).The reactions were performed in 384-well format in a thermocycler(MJ-tetrad) with a cycling protocol of 94, 60 and 72 C for 45 secondseach for 30 cycles. Ten microliters of PCR product were digested bysimultaneous addition of 5 μl of digestion mixture containing 5 U PvuII,7 U XbaI restriction enzyme (MBI Fermentas) and 1.5 μL of ReactBuffer 2(Life Technologies, Breda, The Netherlands) and incubating for 90minutes at 37° C. The digestion products were analyzed byelectrophoresis in a 3% agarose gel in 0.5.times.TBE (1×TBE=89 mM Tris,89 mM boric acid, 2 mM Na₂EDTA) for 80 minutes at 125 Volts. Separationpatterns were documented with a digital camera (DC120, Kodak Company,Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A.) under UV illumination (302 nm). Three ERαhaplotype alleles were identified, encoded 1 (px/T-A), 2 (PX/C-G) and 3(Px/C-A) combining to six genotypes 11, 12, 13, 22, 23 and 33 (FIG. 2).We did not observe the fourth possible haplotype (pX; −397int1T and−351int1G) in our population.

Statistical Analysis

Differences in mean age at baseline between the study group and theRotterdam Study were evaluated by means of analysis of variance (ANOVA).All other differences in baseline characteristics were compared byanalysis of covariance (ANCOVA) testing with age to adjust for possibleconfounding effects. Differences in baseline characteristics between thedifferent genotype groups of the ERα gene were compared as follows. Wegrouped subjects by allele copy number (0, 1, 2) for the haplotypealleles of interest. We allowed for three possible models to explaindifferences between groups, i.e., an allele dose effect, a dominanteffect or a recessive effect. Allele dose was defined as the number ofcopies of a certain allele in the genotype. In case of a consistenttrend reflected as an allele dose effect, we performed a (multiple)linear or logistic regression analysis to quantify the association. Incase of a dominant or recessive effect of the test-allele, ANOVA andANCOVA tests were performed. For dominant effects we comparedtest-allele carriers versus non-carriers while for recessive effects,subjects homozygous for the test allele were compared to heterozygouscarriers and non-carriers.

Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculatedby (multiple) logistic regression analyses to estimate the relative riskof fractures at baseline by genotypes of the risk allele, with no copiesof the risk allele as the reference group. First, we calculated crudeodds ratios, and, secondly, we adjusted for potentially confoundingfactors (age, BMI, BMD, and age at menopause). We used SPSS version 9.0(SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA) for all our analyses.

Results

Baseline Characteristics

The study population (n=1062) was on average 67.0 (SD 6.9) years old,had a BMI of 26.1 (SD 3.7) kg/m², and age at menopause at 48.7 (SD 4.9)years. Dietary calcium and vitamin D intake were on average 1093 (SD326) mg/day and 1.96 (SD 1.15) mg/day, respectively. Lumbar spine BMDwas on average 1.01 (SD 0.17) g/cm² and femoral neck BMD was on average0.81 (SD 0.12) g/cm², respectively. All women were independently living.

Table 1 shows allele and genotype frequencies for ERα and VDRpolymorphisms. The genotype distribution was found to be in HardyWeinberg equilibrium.

TABLE 1 Genotype and allele frequencies of ERα and VDR polymorphisms inthe study population. ERα genotype Number (%) VDR genotype Number (%) 11297 (28.0) 11 271 (25.5) 12 409 (38.5) 12 401 (37.8) 13 124 (11.7) 13105 (9.9)  22 138 (13.0) 22 183 (17.2) 23 82 (7.7) 23 89 (8.4) 33 12(1.1) 33 13 (1.2) Total 1062 (100)   Total 1062 (100)   p value HWE 0.81p value HWE 0.13 ERα haplotype Number (%) VDR haplotype Number (%) 11127 (53.1)  1 1048 (49.3)  2 767 (36.1) 2 856 (40.3) 3 230 (10.8) 3 220(10.4) Total 2124 (100)   Total 2124 (100)  

When we analyzed for known risk factors for osteoporosis by ERα and VDRgenotypes, no differences were shown apart from ERα haplotype 1 (px)that appeared to be dose-dependently associated with later onset ofmenopause, as we have published earlier (Table 2). Similar data werefound for the subgroup of 634 women participating in the analysis forvertebral fractures (data not shown).

TABLE 2 Characteristics of 1062 postmenopausal women according to ERαhaplotype 1 (A) and VDR haplotype 1 (B). A. ERα haplotype 1^(b)Reference Heterozygotes Homozygotes Characteristic^(a) (n = 232) (n =533) (n = 297) Age (year) 67.6 ± 7.1 66.9 ± 6.9 66.8 ± 6.9 BMI (kg/m²)26.2 ± 3.8 26.1 ± 3.5 26.1 ± 4.0 Age at menopause 47.9 ± 5.1 48.7 ± 5.0 49.2 ± 4.6^(c) (year) Dietary calcium 1098 ± 364 1097 ± 319 1081 ± 306intake (mg/day) Dietary vitamin  2.04 ± 1.32  1.96 ± 1.08  1.89 ± 1.12 Dintake (mg/day) B. VDR haplotype 1^(b) Reference HeterozygotesHomozygotes Characteristic^(a) (n = 285) (n = 506) (n = 271) Age (year)66.6 ± 6.6 67.3 ± 7.0 67.0 ± 6.8 BMI (kg/m²) 26.0 ± 3.4 26.2 ± 3.7 26.3± 4.1 Age at menopause 48.9 ± 4.8 48.3 ± 5.1 49.0 ± 4.7 (year) Dietarycalcium 1078 ± 334 1104 ± 331 1086 ± 306 intake (mg/day) Dietary vitamin 2.03 ± 1.26  1.91 ± 1.08  1.97 ± 1.17 D intake (mg/day) ^(a)Data shownare means ± SD. ^(b)Reference includes ERα or VDR genotypes 22, 23, and33; heterozygotes include 12 and 13; homozygotes include 11 ^(c)p = 0.02(allele-dose association, tested by linear regression analysis)

Association of ERα and VDR with BMD

In Table 3 women are grouped according to carrier status for the ERα andVDR haplotypes as homozygous carriers (consisting of genotype 11) andheterozygous carriers (including the genotypes 12 and 13) of the ERαhaplotype I (px) and VDR haplotype 1 (baT), respectively, and women notcarrying these haplotypes (reference group, including genotypes 22, 23and 33).

TABLE 3 Lumbar spine (A) BMD and femoral neck (B) BMD (mean ± SD)according to combined ERα haplotype 1 genotype and VDR haplotype 1genotype. A VDR haplotype 1^(a) ERα haplotype 1^(a) Total ReferenceHeterozygotes Homozygotes p-value Total   1.01 ± 0.29 (1062)^(c) 1.00 ±0.17 (285) 1.02 ± 0.16 (506) 1.02 ± 0.16 (271) NS Reference 1.04 ± 0.17(232) 1.01 ± 0.16 (59)  1.04 ± 0.16 (111) 1.05 ± 0.16 (62)  NSHeterozygotes 1.02 ± 0.16 (533) 1.00 ± 0.16 (134) 1.02 ± 0.16 (260) 1.03± 0.17 (139) NS Homozygotes 0.99 ± 0.16 (297) 0.99 ± 0.16 (92)  1.01 ±0.16 (135) 0.95 ± 0.16 (70)  0.05^(d) p value 0.003^(e) NS NS <0.001^(f)0.09^(f) B VDR haplotype 1^(b) ERα haplotype 1^(a) Total ReferenceHeterozygotes Homozygotes p-value Total  0.81 ± 0.23 (1062) 0.80 ± 0.12(285) 0.81 ± 0.11 (506) 0.81 ± 0.12 (271) NS Reference 0.81 ± 0.11 (232)0.79 ± 0.12 (59)  0.82 ± 0.12 (111) 0.81 ± 0.11 (62)  NS Heterozygotes0.81 ± 0.12 (533) 0.80 ± 0.12 (134) 0.80 ± 0.11 (260) 0.82 ± 0.12 (139)NS Homozygotes 0.80 ± 0.12 (297) 0.81 ± 0.12 (92)  0.80 ± 0.12 (135)0.78 ± 0.12 (70)  NS p value NS NS NS NS 0.13^(g) Values are adjustedfor age, BMI; p values as tested by ANCOVA ^(a)Reference includes ERαgenotypes 22, 23, and 33; heterozygotes include 12 and 13; homozygoteincludes 11. ^(b)Reference includes VDR genotypes 22, 23, and 33;heterozygotes include 12 and 13; homozygote includes 11. ^(c)number ofwomen ^(d)p = 0.02 for recessive association as analysed by ANCOVA.^(e)p = 0.001 for allele dose association as analysed by linearregression analysis ^(f)p < 0.001 for allele dose association asanalysed by linear regression analysis ^(g)p-value for the interactionterm ERα haplotype 1*VDR haplotype 1

ERα haplotype 1 was dose-dependently associated with decreased lumbarspine BMD corresponding with 0.1 SD per copy ERα haplotype 1 (Table 3A,first data column) No association was found with femoral neck BMD (Table3B, first data column). ERα haplotype 2 (PX) was associated withincreased lumbar BMD, corresponding with 0.1 SD per copy ERα haplotype 2(data not shown). These associations did not change after adjustment forpotential confounders such as age, BMI, and age at menopause. Noassociations were found between ERα haplotype 3 (Px) and lumbar spine orfemoral neck BMD (data not shown). Based on these data ERα haplotype 1(px) was considered as risk allele. In the sample of 634 women, in whomdata on incident vertebral fractures were available, the associationbetween ERα haplotype 1 (px) and lumbar spine BMD showed a similar trend(p=0.11).

Based on our previous analyses (5) we selected VDR haplotype 1 (baT) asrisk allele. In the present study no association between VDR haplotype 1(baT) and lumbar spine or femoral neck BMD was observed (Table 3A and B,first data rows).

Interaction of ERα and VDR Genotypes with Respect to BMD

When the association of ERα haplotype 1 (px) with BMD was analyzedaccording to the carrier status for VDR haplotype 1 (baT), there was asignificant allele-dose effect of ERα haplotype 1 (px) being associatedwith decreased lumbar spine BMD only for women homozygous for VDRhaplotype 1 (baT) (Table 3A, fourth data column; p<0.001). Thisassociation was not influenced by age, BMI, and age at menopause. Whenage, BMI, ERα genotype and VDR genotype were taken together in amultivariate regression model, there appeared to be a borderlinesignificant interaction between ERα haplotype 1 (px) and VDR haplotype 1(baT) (p=0.09 for the interaction term). In the subgroup of 634 women,in which data on incident vertebral fractures were available, similarassociations were found (data not shown). No interaction between ERα andVDR genotypes was found for femoral neck BMD (Table 3B; p=0.13 for theinteraction term).

Association of ERα and VDR with Fracture

Analysis of the distribution of fractures in women according to the ERαgenotype revealed an overrepresentation of vertebral fractures in womencarrying the ERα haplotype I (Table 4).

TABLE 4 Number of women with vertebral fractures according to ERαgenotype. ERα genotype No. with fracture/total no.(%) 11 40/187 (21.4)12 26/236 (11.0) 13  10/71 (14.1) 22  3/79 (3.8) 23  6/53 (11.3) 33 0/8(0) X² 19.2 p value 0.0002

FIG. 2 shows separately the distribution of vertebral fracturesaccording to the ERα haplotype 1 (px) and VDR haplotype 1 (baT) status.Vertebral fractures were overrepresented in women carrying ERα haplotype1 (px). This association appeared to be dose dependent with 6.4% innon-carriers of ERα haplotype 1 (px), 12% vertebral fractures (OR 1.9,95% CI 0.9-4.1) in women heterozygous for ERα haplotype 1 and 21%vertebral fractures (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.7-8.2) in women homozygous for ERαhaplotype 1 (px). For women carrying ERα haplotype 2 (PX) there was anallele dose association with decreased vertebral fracture risk (p<0.001)while for ERα haplotype 3 (Px) no differences were observed (p=0.53)(data not shown).

In a previous study VDR haplotype 1 (baT) was found to be associatedwith increased fracture risk (5). When women were grouped by VDRhaplotype 1 (baT) genotype also an allele dose association was observed(FIG. 3). Non-carriers of VDR haplotype 1 had 11% vertebral fractures,women heterozygous for VDR haplotype 1 had 13% vertebral fractures (OR1.3, 95% CI 0.7-2.3), while women homozygous for VDR haplotype 1 had 18%fractures (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.0-17). VDR haplotypes 2 (BAt) and 3 (bAT)were not associated with vertebral fracture risk (data not shown).

No differences between the various ERα and VDR haplotypes were foundwhen the risk for incident non-vertebral fractures was analyzed (datanot shown).

Interaction of ERα and VDR with Respect to Fracture Risk

When we further stratified by VDR haplotype 1 (baT) genotype we observedthe ERα haplotype 1 (px) association to be modified by VDR haplotype 1(baT) genotype (FIG. 4). Significant ERα haplotype 1 (px) genotypedependent differences were only observed in women homozygous for VDRhaplotype 1 (baT). Logistic regression analysis showed that, compared tothe ‘double reference’ group, within the group of VDR genotype [1,1]women have a 2-fold (95% CI 0.5-7.9) and 10-fold (95% CI 2.7-38)increased risk for vertebral fractures when being heterozygous orhomozygous for ERα haplotype 1 (px), respectively. In non-carriers andheterozygous carriers of VDR haplotype 1 (baT) no significant ERαhaplotype 1 (px) genotype dependent differences were observed. When age,BMI, ERα genotype, and VDR genotype were taken together in amultivariate regression model, there appeared to be a significantinteraction between ERα haplotype 1 (px) and VDR haplotype 1 (baT)(p=0.01 for the interaction tem). After adjustment for lumbar spine BMDand age at menopause the results did not change (data not shown).

DISCUSSION

The data presented herein demonstrates for the first time interaction ofpolymorphisms in the VDR and ERα gene in relation to the risk ofincident vertebral fracture risk. Women homozygous for both the VDRhaplotype 1 (baT) and ERα haplotype 1 (px) had a 10-times highervertebral fracture risk than non-carriers and a 3-4 times higher riskthan carriers of either one of the risk haplotypes.

So far most association studies focused on single genes. Twometa-analyses showed a weak association of VDR genotypes with BMD, whichsupported our own findings in a sample of 2000 men and women from theRotterdam study. A recent meta-analysis showed an association betweenERα genotypes and lumbar and femoral BMD (6). Most genetic associationstudies for osteoporosis have been performed with BMD as endpoint whilethe clinically more relevant endpoint of osteoporosis is fracture. Alimited number of studies have yet been able to address the associationof specific gene polymorphisms with fractures. Previously we have shownthat VDR haplotype 1 (baT) is the risk allele for osteoartiritis,vertebral and nonvertebral fractures (5, 7). Ioannidis et al. showed ina meta-analysis that the XbaI polymorphism and not the PvuIIpolymorphism was associated with increased combined risk for vertebraland non-vertebral fractures (6). In the present study direct haplotypingmethods were used to increase genetic resolution. An association of ERαhaplotype 1 (px) with lumbar spine BMD and vertebral fracture risk wasdemonstrated. Also at the lumbar spine a synergistic interaction betweenERα and VDR genotype for BMD and fractures was detected. No interactioneffect between ERα and VDR genotypes was found for femoral neck BMD andnon-vertebral fracture risk. This is in line with previous data, whichshow a higher response to hormonal replacement therapy at the lumbarspine in contrast to the femoral neck. The ERα effect may be morepronounced in the spine, which contains more trabecular bone resultingin a higher rate of bone turnover compared to cortical bone, as presentfor example in the femoral neck.

We and others previously observed that ERα genotype is associated withdifferences in age at menarche and age at menopause. However, in ourcurrent analyses age of menopause did not influence the interaction weobserved. This suggests that differences in the age of menopause aresmall and do not explain the interaction. However, because of therelatively small effect, such influences might only be observed instudies of sufficient power.

An interesting observation was that the association of both ERα and VDRgenotypes with vertebral fracture incidence was independent of BMD. Thisindicates the significance of other bone characteristics for the risk offracture. But it also pointed to the involvement of ERα and VDR genes inpathways (e.g., bone matrix synthesis and bone turnover) other thanthose directly reflected in BMD, and which also determine strength ofbone and thereby fracture risk. For example, estrogen deficiency mayincrease the numbers of remodelling sites and deeper resorption lacunaeand therefore produce loss of connectivity and increased risk forfractures.

A limitation of the present study may be health selection bias. However,genotype and allele frequencies are similar to those observed in otherCaucasian study populations and so “Health” (apart from the risk forfractures) seems not to be genotype dependent and, therefore, we do notexpect this to influence the results. Furthermore, potential selectionbias was avoided by deriving cases and non-cases from the same sourcepopulation.

An aspect that should be realised is that the polymorphisms in the ERαand VDR are anonymous. There is no direct known functional consequencefor the ERα and VDR protein. Therefore, when association is found it isassumed that allele(s) of these single nucleotide polymorphisms are inlinkage disequilibrium with one or more of the truly functionalpolymorphisms elsewhere in the gene. These functional polymorphismscould alter VDR or ERα protein structure or might affect the activity ofthe VDR and ERα 5′ promoter and 3′ UTR, leading to the expression ofaltered quantities of VDR47 and ERα proteins under physiologicconditions. Differential transcriptional activity of the VDR and ERαreceptor proteins could then preferentially modulate subsets of targetgenes in vitamin D and estrogen responsive pathways.

Although the mechanism(s) for the gene-gene interaction we observe is sofar unknown, it is conceivable from a physiological point of view.1,25-(OH)₂D₃ is an important factor in estrogen biosynthesis and mightthus influence local equilibrium between estrogens and androgens.Furthermore 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ regulates ER expression in osteoblast-likecells. In this way 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ might regulate the effect of E₂ on bonemetabolism. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that severalbiological responses to treatment with vitamin D, such as intestinalcalcium absorption and osteocalcin production, are VDR genotypedependent. If 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ influences the effect of E₂ on bonemetabolism, this effect might also be VDR genotype dependent.

On the other hand, E₂ influences vitamin D metabolism and VDRexpression. Sex hormone replacement therapy increases total and freeserum 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ levels. In human fetal osteoblasts E₂ upregulates VDRexpression. Also in rat duodenal mucosa E₂ increases VDR expression andbioresponse. In this way E₂ might influence vitamin D regulatedprocesses, like intestinal calcium absorption and osteocalcin productionin bone. Several studies have demonstrated that the response to hormonalreplacement therapy is ERα genotype dependent. Therefore, the effect ofestrogen replacement on vitamin D regulated processes might also be ERαgenotype dependent.

In conclusion, the present study shows an interlocus interaction inrelation to BMD and fractures between two important candidate genes inosteoporosis. Recently, we also demonstrated an interaction between VDRand another candidate gene, the COLIA1 gene, with respect to fracturerisk (5). Together, these findings underscore the multigenic characterof osteoporosis and the importance of the contribution of geneinteractions in determining fracture risk. At the same time our findingshighlight the necessity of large (multicenter) studies to achievesufficient statistical power to further elucidate the complex,multigenic character of osteoporosis.

While the preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated anddescribed, it will be appreciated that various changes can be madetherein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

REFERENCES

-   1. Hofman, A., Grobbee, D. E., de Jong, P. T. V. M., van den    Ouweland, F. A 1991 Determinants of disease and disability in the    elderly: The Rotterdam Elderly Study, Eur J Epidemiol 7:403-422.-   2. Willing, M., Sowers, M., Aron, D., Clark, M. K., Burns, T.,    Bunten, C., Crutchfield, M., D'Agostino, D., Jannausch 1998 Bone    mineral density and its change in white women: estrogen and vitamin    D receptor genes and their interaction, J Bone Miner Res.    13:695-705.-   3. Van der Klift, M., de Laet, C. E. D. H., McCloskey, E. V.,    Hofman, A, Pols, H. A. P. 2002 The incidence of vertebral fractures    in men and women: The Rotterdam Study, J Bone Miner Res.    17:1051-1056.-   4. Uitterlinden, A. G., Pols, H. A. P., Burger, H Huang, Q., van    Daele, P. L. A, van Duijn, C. M., Hofman, A, Birkenhager, J. C., van    Leeuwen, J. P. T. M. 1996 A large scale population based study of    the association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms with bone    mineral density, J Bone Miner Res. 11: 1242-1248.-   5. Uitterlinden, A. G., Weel, A. E. A. M., Burger, H, Fang, Y., van    Duyn, C. M., Hofman, A., van Leeuwen, J. P. T. M., Pols, H. A. P.,    2001 Interaction between the vitamin D receptor gene and collagen    type Iα1 gene in susceptibility for fracture, J Bone Miner Res.    16:379-385.-   6. Ionnannidis, J. P. A, Stavrou, I., Trikalinos, T. A, Zois, C.,    Luisa Brandi, M., et al. 2002 Association of polymorphisms of the    estrogen receptor a gene with bone mineral density and fracture risk    in women: a meta-analysis, J Bone Min. Res. 17:2048-2060.-   7. Uitterlinden, A. G., Burger, H., Huang, Q., Odding, E., van    Duijn, C. M., Hofman, A, Birkenhager, J. C., van Leeuwen, J. P. T.    M., Pols, H. A. P. 1997 Vitamin D receptor genotype is associated    with radiographic osteoarthritis at the knee, J Clin. Invest.    100:259-263.

1-30. (canceled)
 31. A method of detecting p and x alleles of a PvuIIsite and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene in a mammaliansubject comprising at least one estrogen receptor α gene comprising aPvuII site and a XbaI site, wherein the PvuII site can exist as a P or pallelic form, and the XbaI site can exist as an X or x allelic form,said method comprising analyzing nucleic acid molecules obtained fromthe mammalian subject to determine which of the P, p X, and x alleles ofthe estrogen receptor α gene are present.
 32. The method of detecting pand x alleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor αgene according to claim 31, said method comprising analyzing nucleicacid molecules of the mammalian subject to determine whether the pxhaplotype of the estrogen receptor α gene is present.
 33. The method ofdetecting p and x alleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogenreceptor α gene according to claim 31, said method further comprisinganalyzing nucleic acid molecules of the mammalian subject to determinewhether an allele of a vitamin D receptor gene is present.
 34. Themethod of detecting p and x alleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site inan estrogen receptor α gene according to claim 33, wherein the vitamin Dreceptor gene comprises a BsmI site, an ApaI site and a TaqI site,wherein the BsmI site can exist as a B or b allelic form, the ApaI sitecan exist as an A or a allelic form, and the TaqI site can exist as a Tor t allelic form, the method comprising analyzing nucleic acidmolecules of the mammalian subject to determine which of the B, b, A, a,T, and t alleles of the BsmI, ApaI and TaqI sites of the vitamin Dreceptor gene are present.
 35. The method of detecting p and x allelesof a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene accordingto claim 34, said method comprising analyzing nucleic acid molecules ofthe mammalian subject to determine whether a baT haplotype of thevitamin D receptor gene is present.
 36. The method of detecting p and xalleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α geneaccording to claim 34, said method further comprising determining thecopy number of a member of the group consisting of the P, p, X and xalleles of the estrogen receptor α. gene and the B, b, A, a, T and talleles of the vitamin D receptor gene.
 37. The method of detecting pand x alleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor αgene according to claim 31, wherein the subject is a human female. 38.The method of detecting p and x alleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI sitein an estrogen receptor α gene according to claim 31, wherein saidmethod is performed in vitro.
 39. The method of detecting p and xalleles of a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α geneaccording to claim 38, wherein said method is performed on a blood ortissue sample of a subject.
 40. The method of detecting p and x allelesof a PvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene accordingto claim 31 wherein the mammalian subject is suffering from low bonemineral density.
 41. The method of detecting p and x alleles of a PvuIIsite and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene according to claim31 wherein the mammalian subject has a normal level of bone mineraldensity.
 42. The method of detecting p and x alleles of a PvuII site anda XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene according to claim 31,wherein the presence of the haplotype is determined by amplification ofa portion of the first intron of the estrogen receptor α gene to yieldan amplified fragment, followed by restriction enzyme digestion of theamplified fragment.
 43. The method of detecting p and x alleles of aPvuII site and a XbaI site in an estrogen receptor α gene according toclaim 42, further comprising determining the haplotype of a vitamin Dreceptor gene by amplification of a portion of the vitamin D receptorgene between exon 7 and the 3′ untranslated region to yield an amplifiedfragment, followed by restriction enzyme digestion of the amplifiedfragment.
 44. A method of determining the susceptibility of bonefracture and treating the same in a mammalian subject to prevent orreduce the risk of bone fracture, wherein the mammalian subjectcomprises at least one estrogen receptor α gene comprising a PvuII siteand a XbaI site, wherein the PvuII site can exist as a P or pallelicform, and the XbaI site can exist as an X or x allelic form, the methodcomprising analyzing nucleic acid molecules obtained from the mammaliansubject to determine which of the P, p, X and x alleles of the PvuII andXbaI sites of the estrogen receptor α gene are present, wherein thepresence of a haplotype comprising the p and x alleles is indicative ofan increased susceptibility to bone fracture, and treating the mammaliansubject to reduce the risk of bone fracture if the subject has ahaplotype comprising the p and x alleles.
 45. The method of claim 44further comprising analyzing nucleic acid molecules of the mammaliansubject to determine whether the px haplotype of the estrogen receptor αgene is present, wherein the presence of the px haplotype is indicativeof an increased susceptibility to bone fracture.
 46. The method of claim44 further comprising analyzing nucleic acid molecules of the mammaliansubject to determine which of the B, b, A, a, T and t alleles of theBsmI, ApaI and TaqI sites of the vitamin D receptor gene are present,wherein the presence of a haplotype comprising at least one of the b, a,and T alleles is indicative of an increased susceptibility to bonefracture.
 47. The method of claim 44 further comprising analyzingnucleic acid molecules of the mammalian subject to determine whether thebaT haplotype of the vitamin D receptor gene is present, wherein thepresence of the baT haplotype is indicative of an increasedsusceptibility to bone fracture.
 48. The method of claim 44, said methodfurther comprising determining the copy number of a member of the groupconsisting of the P, p, X and x alleles of the estrogen receptor α geneand the B, b, A, a, T and t alleles of the vitamin D receptor gene,before treating the subject to reduce the risk of bone fracture if thesubject has a haplotype comprising the p and x alleles of the estrogenreceptor α gene.
 49. The method of claim 44, wherein the treatmentcomprises at least one of modifications to lifestyle, regular exercise,changes in diet and administration of a pharmaceutical preparationeffective to prevent or reduce the risk of bone fracture.
 50. The methodof claim 44, wherein the subject is a human female.